DOWNLOAD PDF

Antioxidants and Pregnancy: Impact on Maternal and Fetal Health

*Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu1, Getrude Uzoma Obeagu2, Joseph Obiezu Chukwujekwu Ezeonwumelu3, Esther Ugo Alum4,5 and Okechukwu Paul-Chima Ugwu5

1Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Kampala International University, Uganda.

2School of Nursing Science, Kampala International University, Uganda.

3Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, Kampala International University, Western Campus, Ishaka, Bushenyi, Uganda.

4Department of Biochemistry, Ebonyi State, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

5Department of Publication and Extensions, Kampala International University, Uganda.

*Corresponding authour: Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Kampala International University, Uganda.

E-mail: emmanuelobeagu@yahoo.com, obeagu.emmanuel@kiu.ac.ug, 0000-0002-4538-0161

ABSTRACT

Pregnancy represents a physiological state characterized by increased metabolic demands and heightened oxidative stress, posing potential risks to both maternal health and fetal development. Oxidative stress, resulting from an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant defense mechanisms, has been implicated in various pregnancy complications such as preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, preterm birth, and fetal developmental abnormalities. Antioxidants, a diverse group of compounds abundant in fruits, vegetables, and certain supplements, play a pivotal role in neutralizing ROS and mitigating oxidative damage. This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the impact of antioxidants on maternal and fetal health during pregnancy. This paper underscores the crucial influence of antioxidants on fetal development. Antioxidants have shown promise in protecting fetal cells and tissues from oxidative damage, potentially reducing the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, birth defects, and preterm birth. In conclusion, while antioxidants exhibit potential benefits in mitigating oxidative stress and improving pregnancy outcomes, further research is warranted to elucidate optimal dosages, potential interactions, and long-term implications. This review offers insights into the current understanding of antioxidants in pregnancy and emphasizes their significance in promoting maternal well-being and optimal fetal development.

Keywords: Antioxidants, Pregnancy, Maternal and Fetal Health

INTRODUCTION

Pregnancy stands as a remarkable yet delicate phase in a woman’s life, marked by profound physiological changes that impact both maternal health and fetal development [1-3]. Amidst the marvel of this process lies the intricate balance between the body’s oxidative state and its defense mechanisms—a balance that assumes pivotal significance in shaping pregnancy outcomes [4-8]. Oxidative stress, arising from an overabundance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) relative to the body’s antioxidant capacity, represents a critical factor implicated in various pregnancy complications. Conditions such as preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, preterm birth, and impaired fetal growth have been associated with heightened oxidative stress during gestation [9-13]. The intricate dance between ROS and antioxidants, wherein the former seeks to destabilize cellular structures and the latter acts as a protective shield, underscores the paramount importance of understanding the role of antioxidants in pregnancy [14-16]. Antioxidants, encompassing a spectrum of compounds abundant in a well-balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and select supplements, have emerged as potential mitigators of oxidative stress, offering promise in ameliorating adverse pregnancy outcomes [17-20]. This paper endeavors to explore the multifaceted relationship between antioxidants and pregnancy, with a specific focus on their impact on both maternal and fetal health. By unraveling the mechanisms through which antioxidants operate, we aim to provide a deeper understanding of their potential in alleviating oxidative stress-associated complications and promoting favorable pregnancy outcomes. In presenting this synthesis of knowledge, we aspire not only to shed light on the significance of antioxidants in pregnancy but also to pave the way for future research endeavors aimed at optimizing maternal health and ensuring the optimal development of the unborn child.

Antioxidants and Their Role in Pregnancy

Antioxidants play a crucial role in pregnancy by counteracting oxidative stress, a condition characterized by an imbalance between the production of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the body’s ability to neutralize them [21-23]. During pregnancy, the body undergoes significant physiological changes, leading to increased metabolic activity and heightened oxidative stress. This heightened oxidative state can pose risks to both maternal health and fetal development. Antioxidants, which include vitamins such as C and E, selenium, polyphenols, and other micronutrients, act as scavengers of ROS, protecting cells and tissues from oxidative damage [24-27].  Antioxidants counteract the harmful effects of ROS by donating electrons or hydrogen atoms to stabilize and neutralize these highly reactive molecules [28]. By doing so, they prevent oxidative damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA, which could otherwise lead to cellular dysfunction and tissue damage. Antioxidants contribute to maintaining maternal health during pregnancy by potentially reducing the risk of pregnancy-related complications. Studies suggest that adequate levels of antioxidants may help mitigate conditions like preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and hypertensive disorders by regulating oxidative stress levels [29-33]. Antioxidants play a crucial role in supporting fetal growth and development. They protect the developing fetus from oxidative damage, which could otherwise impair cellular development and increase the risk of birth defects. Additionally, antioxidants might contribute to reducing the risk of preterm birth and low birth weight by supporting healthy placental function [34-38]. Some antioxidants are known for their immune-modulating properties. During pregnancy, a balanced immune response is crucial, and certain antioxidants may help regulate immune function, supporting a healthy pregnancy [39-43]. Oxidative stress and inflammation are interconnected processes. Antioxidants may have anti-inflammatory properties, potentially reducing inflammation associated with pregnancy complications [44-48]. Understanding the diverse forms and mechanisms of action of antioxidants in pregnancy is vital. However, optimal dosages, the timing of supplementation, and potential interactions with other prenatal interventions remain areas of ongoing research and debate. Antioxidants play a pivotal role in maintaining a balanced oxidative state during pregnancy, potentially mitigating the risk of complications and supporting optimal maternal health and fetal development. Further research is essential to precisely delineate the effects of various antioxidants, their synergistic actions, and their precise implications for maternal-fetal well-being.

Effects of Antioxidants on Maternal Health during Pregnancy

The effects of antioxidants on maternal health during pregnancy are multifaceted and can influence various aspects of a woman’s well-being throughout this crucial period. Antioxidants, including vitamins C and E, selenium, and polyphenols, play a significant role in mitigating oxidative stress and potentially reducing the risk of pregnancy-related complications [49-54].  Antioxidants act as scavengers of free radicals, reducing oxidative stress levels in the maternal body. By doing so, they potentially mitigate the risk of complications associated with oxidative stress, such as preeclampsia and gestational diabetes mellitus [55-57]. Preeclampsia, characterized by high blood pressure during pregnancy, is among the leading causes of maternal and fetal morbidity. Antioxidants like vitamin C and E have shown promise in helping regulate blood pressure and reducing the risk of developing hypertensive disorders [58-62]. Some antioxidants possess anti-inflammatory properties, which can help modulate the inflammatory response in pregnant women. This effect may aid in reducing inflammation associated with certain pregnancy complications [63-66]. Maintaining a balanced immune system is crucial during pregnancy. Certain antioxidants contribute to supporting immune function, potentially reducing the risk of infections and bolstering maternal immunity [67-69]. Pregnancy triggers an increased metabolic demand, leading to heightened oxidative stress. Antioxidants help mitigate the oxidative damage to maternal tissues and organs, thereby potentially reducing the risk of tissue injury and improving overall maternal health [70-74]. Adequate antioxidant levels may play a role in reducing the risk of preterm birth, as oxidative stress has been linked to premature labor. Antioxidants’ protective effects on placental function might contribute to a lower incidence of preterm birth [75-77]. It is important to note that while antioxidants show promise in benefiting maternal health during pregnancy, the optimal dosages, specific mechanisms of action, and their precise impact on various complications require further exploration through robust clinical studies. Additionally, individual variations and interactions with other factors may influence their effectiveness, highlighting the need for personalized approaches in prenatal care. Healthcare providers should consider the potential benefits of antioxidants in conjunction with a balanced diet and prenatal care to support maternal well-being throughout pregnancy.

Impact of Antioxidants on Fetal Development

The impact of antioxidants on fetal development during pregnancy is significant, as these compounds play a crucial role in protecting the developing fetus from oxidative stress and supporting optimal growth and health [78-80]. Antioxidants act as protective agents against oxidative stress, which can otherwise harm the developing fetus. By neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reducing oxidative damage to fetal cells and tissues, antioxidants contribute to maintaining the integrity of the developing organs and preventing potential abnormalities [81-88]. The placenta plays a vital role in supplying nutrients and oxygen to the fetus. Antioxidants have been shown to support placental health by reducing oxidative stress within the placental tissue. A healthy placenta is crucial for optimal fetal development and growth [89-96]. Oxidative stress has been linked to an increased risk of birth defects and developmental abnormalities in the fetus. Antioxidants help mitigate this risk by protecting against DNA damage and cellular dysfunction, potentially reducing the occurrence of structural or functional birth defects [83]. Adequate levels of antioxidants, obtained through a balanced maternal diet or supplementation, may contribute to normal fetal growth and development. Antioxidants support the formation and maturation of cells and tissues, aiding in the proper development of organs and systems within the growing fetus [84]. Oxidative stress has been associated with preterm birth. Antioxidants’ ability to mitigate oxidative damage and support placental function may contribute to reducing the risk of preterm labor and premature birth [85]. Some antioxidants, such as certain vitamins and polyphenols, have shown potential in supporting neurodevelopment in the fetus. Their protective effects on the developing brain cells may contribute to improved cognitive function and neurological health in the offspring. While the potential benefits of antioxidants on fetal development are promising, the precise mechanisms, optimal dosages, and specific effects of individual antioxidants during pregnancy need further investigation. Additionally, the timing and duration of antioxidant supplementation and their potential interactions with other prenatal interventions require careful consideration. Healthcare professionals often recommend maintaining a balanced diet rich in antioxidants and nutrients, alongside prenatal care, to support optimal fetal development and reduce the risk of complications during pregnancy.

Clinical Studies and Evidence

Clinical studies investigating the effects of antioxidants on pregnancy outcomes have provided valuable insights into their potential benefits, though results have sometimes been varied [86-90].  Several clinical trials have explored the role of antioxidants in reducing the risk of preeclampsia, a serious hypertensive disorder during pregnancy. Some studies suggested that supplementation with antioxidants like vitamins C and E might lower the risk of preeclampsia, while others found no significant preventive effect. Further research is needed to clarify their efficacy in preventing or managing preeclampsia [87-93]. Antioxidants, particularly those with anti-inflammatory properties, have been investigated for their potential to mitigate gestational diabetes mellitus. Some studies have shown promising results, indicating a possible role of antioxidants in improving insulin sensitivity and reducing inflammation, but more robust evidence is required to establish their definitive impact on gestational diabetes [89-96]. Clinical studies exploring the relationship between antioxidants and preterm birth or low birth weight have yielded mixed results. While some studies suggested a potential protective effect of antioxidants in reducing the risk of preterm birth and improving birth weight, others have not consistently shown these benefits. The complexity of factors influencing these outcomes necessitates further investigation. Research investigating the impact of antioxidants on fetal development has shown promising but sometimes inconclusive results. Studies examining the effects of antioxidant supplementation on reducing the risk of birth defects, supporting neurodevelopment, and ensuring optimal growth have provided insights but require more comprehensive and rigorous investigations to draw definitive conclusions. It’s important to note that differences in study designs, participant demographics, dosage regimens, types of antioxidants used, and timing of supplementation contribute to the variability in outcomes observed across studies. Moreover, individual variations in response to antioxidant interventions underscore the need for personalized approaches in prenatal care. While some clinical evidence suggests potential benefits of antioxidants in pregnancy, further well-designed RCTs with larger sample sizes and standardized protocols are essential to validate their efficacy, safety, and optimal use in improving maternal and fetal health outcomes during pregnancy.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS

Emphasize a well-rounded, nutrient-rich diet that includes natural sources of antioxidants such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. Encourage pregnant individuals to obtain antioxidants through dietary means whenever possible. For individuals at risk of inadequate antioxidant intake, consider prenatal supplements containing antioxidants, but ensure these supplements are taken under healthcare provider guidance and supervision. The appropriate dosage and specific types of antioxidants in supplements should be determined based on individual needs. Pregnant individuals should consult healthcare professionals before initiating any antioxidant supplementation. Individualized recommendations based on maternal health status, dietary habits, and specific pregnancy concerns should guide the decision-making process. Optimal timing and dosage of antioxidant supplementation require careful consideration. Timing the intake of antioxidants during critical stages of fetal development may be essential. Healthcare providers should provide guidance on the appropriate dosage and duration of supplementation to avoid excessive intake, which may pose risks. Excessive intake of certain antioxidants, especially through supplementation, might have adverse effects and interact with other medications or prenatal vitamins. More is not necessarily better, and high doses of certain antioxidants may potentially be harmful during pregnancy. Acknowledge individual variations in response to antioxidant supplementation. Factors such as maternal age, preexisting health conditions, lifestyle habits, and genetic factors may influence the efficacy and safety of antioxidants during pregnancy. A personalized approach to prenatal care is crucial. Healthcare providers should monitor the maternal health status and fetal development regularly, especially when antioxidants are being supplemented. Close monitoring allows for early detection of any potential complications and adjustments to the supplementation regimen if needed. Base recommendations on the most up-to-date and credible scientific evidence available. Encourage participation in well-designed clinical trials to contribute to advancing knowledge about the effects of antioxidants on pregnancy outcomes. Alongside antioxidant intake, emphasize the importance of other healthy lifestyle factors during pregnancy, such as regular exercise, adequate rest, avoidance of harmful substances (like smoking and excessive alcohol consumption), and maintaining a healthy weight. Advocate for further research to deepen our understanding of the precise mechanisms, optimal dosages, and long-term effects of antioxidants on maternal and fetal health outcomes. Encourage collaboration between researchers and healthcare professionals to generate more conclusive evidence. By incorporating these recommendations into prenatal care and decision-making processes, healthcare providers can strive to optimize the use of antioxidants in pregnancy, aiming to promote healthy outcomes for both mother and child while ensuring safety and effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

The intricate interplay between oxidative stress and antioxidants during pregnancy underscores their critical role in shaping maternal and fetal health outcomes. While oxidative stress represents a natural consequence of pregnancy, its excessive burden can lead to complications jeopardizing the well-being of both the mother and the developing fetus. Antioxidants, encompassing a diverse array of compounds, have emerged as promising agents in mitigating the deleterious effects of oxidative stress. Through their ability to scavenge free radicals, reduce cellular damage, and modulate biological pathways, antioxidants offer potential benefits in supporting maternal health and promoting optimal fetal development. While the potential benefits of antioxidants in pregnancy are promising, further research is essential to solidify their role as a complementary strategy in prenatal care. Advancing our understanding of antioxidants’ precise mechanisms, optimizing their use, and ensuring their safety will pave the way toward improved maternal and fetal health outcomes, fostering healthier pregnancies and better overall well-being for generations to come.

REFERENCES

  1. Obeagu EI, Agreen FC. Anaemia among pregnant women: A review of African pregnant teenagers. J Pub Health Nutri. 2023; 6 (1). 2023;138. links/63da799664fc860638054562/Anaemia-among-pregnant-women-A-review-of-African-pregnant-teenagers.pdf.
  2. Obeagu EI, Ezimah AC, Obeagu GU. Erythropoietin in the anaemias of pregnancy: a review. Int J Curr Res Chem Pharm Sci. 2016;3(3):10-8. links/5710fae108ae846f4ef05afb/ERYTHROPOIETIN-IN-THE-ANAEMIAS-OF-PREGNANCY-A-REVIEW.pdf.
  3. Obeagu EI, Adepoju OJ, Okafor CJ, Obeagu GU, Ibekwe AM, Okpala PU, Agu CC. Assessment of Haematological Changes in Pregnant Women of Ido, Ondo State, Nigeria. J Res Med Dent Sci. 2021;9(4):145-8. links/608a6728a6fdccaebdf52d94/Assessment-of-Haematological-Changes-in-Pregnant-Women-of-Ido-Ondo.pdf.
  4. Lane N. Power, sex, suicide: mitochondria and the meaning of life. Oxford University Press; 2005.
  5. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Sickle Cell Anaemia in Pregnancy: A Review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023;6(2):10-3. http://irmhs.com/index.php/irmhs/article/view/111.
  6. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI. Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus based on demographic and risk factors among pregnant women attending clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri. 2022; 5 (8). 2022;137. links/6317a6b1acd814437f0ad268/Seroprevalence-of-human-immunodeficiency-virus-based-on-demographic-and-risk-factors-among-pregnant-women-attending-clinics-in-Zaria-Metropolis-Nigeria.pdf.
  7. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Chukwueze CM, Ikpenwa JN, Ramos GF. Evaluation of Protein C, Protein S and Fibrinogen of Pregnant Women with Malaria in Owerri Metropolis. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022;2(2):1-9.
  8. Obeagu EI, Ikpenwa JN, Chukwueze CM, Obeagu GU. Evaluation of protein C, protein S and fibrinogen of pregnant women in Owerri Metropolis. Madonna University Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022;2(1):292-8. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/57.
  9. Agarwal A, Aponte-Mellado A, Premkumar BJ, Shaman A, Gupta S. The effects of oxidative stress on female reproduction: a review. Reproductive biology and endocrinology. 2012; 10:1-31.
  10. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Adepoju OJ. Evaluation of haematological parameters of pregnant women based on age groups in Olorunsogo road area of Ido, Ondo state. J. Bio. Innov11 (3). 2022:936-41.
  11. Obeagu EI. An update on utilization of antenatal care among pregnant Women in Nigeria. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2022;9(9):21-6.DOI:22192/ijcrcps.2022.09.09.003
  12. Okoroiwu IL, Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Determination of clot retraction in preganant women attending antenatal clinic in federal medical centre Owerri, Nigeria. Madonna University Journal of Medicine and HealthSciences.2022;2(2):91-7. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/67.
  13. Obeagu EI, Hassan AO, Adepoju OJ, Obeagu GU, Okafor CJ. Evaluation of Changes in Haematological Parameters of Pregnant Women Based on Gestational Age at Olorunsogo Road Area of Ido, Ondo State. Nigeria. Journal of Research in Medical and Dental Science. 2021;9(12):462-.links/61b1e32f0c4bfb675178bfa7/Evaluation-of-Changes-in-Haematological-Parameters-of-Pregnant-Women-Based-on-Gestational-Age-at-Olorunsogo-Road-Area-of-Ido-Ondo-State-Nigeria.pdf.
  14. Stefanache A, Lungu II, Butnariu IA, Calin G, Gutu C, Marcu C, Grierosu C, Bogdan Goroftei ER, Duceac LD, Dabija MG, Popa F. Understanding How Minerals Contribute to Optimal Immune Function. Journal of Immunology Research. 2023.
  15. Anyiam AF, Obeagu EI, Obi E, Omosigho PO, Irondi EA, Arinze-Anyiam OC, Asiyah MK. ABO blood groups and gestational diabetes among pregnant women attending University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Kwara State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Reports in Hematology. 2022 Jun 21;5(2):113-21.
  16. Obeagu EI. Gestational Thrombocytopaenia. J Gynecol Women’s Health. 2023;25(3):556163. links/64b01aa88de7ed28ba95fccb/Gestational-Thrombocytopaenia.pdf.
  17. Obeagu EI, Bunu UO, Obeagu GU, Habimana JB. Antioxidants in the Management of Sickle Cell Anaemia: An Area to Be Exploited for the Wellbeing of the Patients. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023;6(4):12-7.
  18. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Utilization of Antioxidants in the management of diabetes mellitus patients. J Diabetes Clin Prac. 2018;1(102):2.
  19. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Nkwocha BC, Nwanna CA, Nwanjo HU, Amadike JN, Elendu HN, Ofoedeme CN, Ozims SJ, Nwankpa P. Change in Lipid Peroxidation Marker (MDA) and Non enzymatic Antioxidants (VIT C & E) in HIV Seropositive Children in an Urban Community of Abia State. Nigeria. J. Bio. Innov. 2016;5(1):24-30.
  20. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Ezenwuba C, Agu GC, Amah H, Ozims SJ, Nwanjo HU, Edward A, Izuchukwu IF, Amadike JN, Nwagwu AJ. Antioxidant status of children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Owerri municipal council of Imo state. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2016;3(8):40-6.
  21. Lázár L. The role of oxidative stress in female reproduction and pregnancy. Oxid Stress Dis. 2012:313-36.
  22. Ezimah UA, Obeagu EI, Ezimah CO, Ezimah A, Nto NJ. Diarrhoeal diseases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome stimulate more depletion of total antioxidant status. Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. 2016;3(4):23-5.
  23. Aloh GS, Obeagu EI, Okoroiwu IL, Odo CE, Chibunna OM, Kanu SN, Elemchukwu Q, Okpara KE, Ugwu GU. Antioxidant-Mediated Heinz Bodies Levels of Sickle Erythrocytes under Drug-Induced Oxidative Stress. European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical sciences. 2015;2(1):502-7.
  24. Yadav A, Kumari R, Yadav A, Mishra JP, Srivatva S, Prabha S. Antioxidants and its functions in human body-A Review. Res. Environ. Life Sci. 2016 Nov;9(11):1328-31.
  25. Alum EU, Inya JE, Ugwu OP, Obeagu EI, Aloke C, Aja PM, Okpata MG, John EC, Orji MO, Onyema O. Ethanolic leaf extract of Datura stramonium attenuates methotrexate-induced biochemical alterations in Wistar Albino rats. RPS Pharmacy and Pharmacology Reports. 2023;2(1): rqac011.
  26. Nwakuilite A, Nwanjo HU, Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI. Evaluation Of Enzyme Antioxidants in Streptozocin Induced Diabetic Rats Treated with Moringa Oleifera Leaf Powder. European Journal of Biomedical. 2020;7(11):285-8.
  27. Ifeanyi OE. A review on free radicals and antioxidants. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2018;4(2):123-33.
  28. Bhattacharya S. Reactive oxygen species and cellular defense system. Free radicals in human health and disease. 2015:17-29.
  29. Pieczyńska J, Płaczkowska S, Sozański R, Orywal K, Mroczko B, Grajeta H. Is maternal dietary selenium intake related to antioxidant status and the occurrence of pregnancy complications? Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 2019; 54:110-7.
  30. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI, Abdullahi IO, Jakheng EW, Chukwueze CM, Eze GC, Essien UC, Madekwe CC, Madekwe CC, Vidya S, Kumar S. Distribution Rate of Chlamydial Infection According to Demographic Factors among Pregnant Women Attending Clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology. 2022;13(2):26-31.
  31. Obeagu EI, Ogbonna US, Nwachukwu AC, Ochiabuto O, Enweani IB, Ezeoru VC. Prevalence of Malaria with Anaemia and HIV status in women of reproductive age in Onitsha, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(4):10-9.
  32. Obeagu EI, Abdirahman BF, Bunu UO, Obeagu GU. Obsterics characteristics that effect the newborn outcomes. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 2023;10(3):134-43.DOI:22192/ijarbs.2023.10.03.016
  33. Obeagu EI, Ogunnaya FU. PREGNANCYINDUCED HAEMATOLOGICAL CHANGES: A KEY TO MARTERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH. European Journal of Biomedical. 2023;10(8):42-3. links/64c890bddb38b20d6dad2c5c/PREGNANCY-INDUCED-HAEMATOLOGICAL-CHANGES-A-KEY-TO-MARTERNAL-AND-CHILD-HEALTH.pdf.
  34. Al-Gubory KH, Fowler PA, Garrel C. The roles of cellular reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress and antioxidants in pregnancy outcomes. The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology. 2010;42(10):1634-50.
  35. Ezeoru VC, Enweani IB, Ochiabuto O, Nwachukwu AC, Ogbonna US, Obeagu EI. Prevalence of Malaria with Anaemia and HIV status in women of reproductive age in Onitsha, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(4):10-9.
  36. Okamgba OC, Nwosu DC, Nwobodo EI, Agu GC, Ozims SJ, Obeagu EI, Ibanga IE, Obioma-Elemba IE, Ihekaire DE, Obasi CC, Amah HC. Iron Status of Pregnant and Post-Partum Women with Malaria Parasitaemia in Aba Abia State, Nigeria. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Research. 2017;5(4):206. links/5ea97df145851592d6a8acf2/Iron-Status-of-Pregnant-and-Post-Partum-Women-with-Malaria-Parasitaemia-in-Aba-Abia-State-Nigeria.pdf.
  37. Eze RI, Obeagu EI, Edet FN. Frequency of Rh Antigen C And c among pregnant women in Sub-Urban area in Eastern Nigeria. Madonna Uni J Med Health Sci. 2021;1(1):19-30.
  38. Obeagu EI, Ofodile AC, Okwuanaso CB. A review of urinary tract infections in pregnant women: Risks factors. J Pub Health Nutri. 2023; 6 (1). 2023;137:26-35. links/63c3a9116fe15d6a571e8bba/A-review-of-urinary-tract-infections-in-pregnant-women-Risks-factors.pdf.
  39. Benson KF, Beaman JL, Ou B, Okubena A, Okubena O, Jensen GS. West African Sorghum bicolor leaf sheaths have anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties in vitro. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2013;16(3):230-8.
  40. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Musiimenta E. Post partum haemorrhage among pregnant women: Update on risks factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(2):14-7.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2023.09.02.003
  41. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Ogunnaya FU. Deep vein thrombosis in pregnancy: A review of prevalence and risk factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2023;10(8):14-21.DOI:22192/ijcrcps.2023.10.08.002
  42. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI, Jakheng EW, Uwakwe OS, Eze GC, Obeagu GU, Vidya S, Kumar S. Occurrence of Chlamydial Infection Based on Clinical Symptoms and Clinical History among Pregnant Women Attending Clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Reports in Gynaecology. 2022;5(3):98-105.
  43. Okorie HM, Obeagu EI, Eze EN, Jeremiah ZA. Assessment of some haematological parameters in malaria infected pregnant women in Imo state Nigeria. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biol. Med. 2018;3(9):1-4.DOI:22192/ijcrbm.2018.03.09.001
  44. Tenório MB, Ferreira RC, Moura FA, Bueno NB, de Oliveira AC, Goulart MO. Cross-talk between oxidative stress and inflammation in preeclampsia. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2019.
  45. Onyenweaku FC, Amah HC, Obeagu EI, Nwandikor UU, Onwuasoanya UF. Prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria and its antibiotic susceptibility pattern in pregnant women attending private ante natal clinics in Umuahia Metropolitan. Int J Curr Res Biol Med. 2017;2(2):13-23.DOI:22192/ijcrbm.2017.02.02.003
  46. Okoroiwu IL, Chinedu-Madu JU, Obeagu EI, Vincent CC, Ochiabuto OM, Ibekwe AM, Amaechi CO, Agu CC, Anoh NV, Amadi NM. Evaluation of Iron Status, Haemoglobin and Protein Levels of Pregnant Women in Owerri Metropolis. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(27A):36-43.
  47. Obeagu EI, Njar VE, Obeagu GU. Infertility: Prevalence and Consequences. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2023;10(7):43-50.
  48. Emeka-Obi OR, Ibeh NC, Obeagu EI, Okorie HM. Evaluation of levels of some inflammatory cytokines in preeclamptic women in owerri. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(42A):53-65.
  49. Patel A, Dewani D, Jaiswal A, Yadav P, Reddy LS, Patel Jr A, srivani Reddy L. Exploring Melatonin’s Multifaceted Role in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Management: A Comprehensive Review. Cureus. 2023;15(11).
  50. Obeagu EI, Faduma MH, Uzoma G. Ectopic Pregnancy: A Review. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2023;10(4):40-4.DOI: 22192/ijcrcps.2023.10.04.004
  51. Obeagu EI, Gamade SM, Obeagu GU. The roles of Neutrophils in pregnancy. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(5):31-5.DOI: 22192/ijcrms.2023.09.05.005
  52. Eze R, Obeagu EI, Nwakulite A, Okoroiwu IL, Vincent CC, Okafor CJ, Chukwurah EF, Chijioke UO, Amaechi CO. Evaluation of Copper Status and Some Red Cell Parameters of Pregnant Women in Enugu State, South Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(30A):67-71.
  53. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Molar Pregnancy: Update of prevalence and risk factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(7):25-8.DOI: 22192/ijcrms.2023.09.07.005
  54. Obeagu EI, Bunu UO. Factors that influence unmet need for family planning. International Journal of Current Research in Biology and Medicine. 2023;8(1):23-7.
  55. Al-Gubory KH, Fowler PA, Garrel C. The roles of cellular reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress and antioxidants in pregnancy outcomes. The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology. 2010;42(10):1634-50.
  56. Ibebuike JE, Ojie CA, Nwokike GI, Obeagu EI, Nwosu DC, Nwanjo HU, Agu GC, Ezenwuba CO, Nwagu SA, Akujuobi AU. Barriers to utilization of maternal health services in southern senatorial district of Cross Rivers state, Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research. 2017;4(8):1-9.DOI: 22192/ijamr.2017.04.08.001
  57. Emannuel G, Martin O, Peter OS, Obeagu EI, Daniel K. Factors Influencing Early Neonatal Adverse Outcomes among Women with HIV with Post Dated Pregnancies Delivering at Kampala International University Teaching Hospital, Uganda. Asian Journal of Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2023;6(1):203-11. http://research.sdpublishers.net/id/eprint/2819/.
  58. Okorie HM, Obeagu EI, Eze EN, Jeremiah ZA. Assessment of coagulation parameters in malaria infected pregnant women in Imo state, Nigeria. International Journal of Current Research in Medical Sciences. 2018;4(9):41-9.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2018.04.09.006
  59. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Postpartum haemorrhage among women delivering through spontaneous vaginal delivery: Prevalence and risk factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2023;10(8):22-6.DOI: 22192/ijcrcps.2023.10.08.003
  60. Obeagu E, Eze RI, Obeagu EI, Nnatuanya IN, Dara EC. ZINC LEVEL IN APPARENTLY PREGNANT WOMEN IN URBAN AREA. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences ISSN: 2814-3035.2022;2(1):134-48. https://www.journal.madonnauniversity.edu.ng/index.php/medicine/article/view/40.
  61. Ogomaka IA, Obeagu EI. Malaria in Pregnancy Amidst Possession of Insecticide Treated Bed Nets (ITNs) in Orlu LGA of Imo State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(41B):380-6.
  62. Obeagu EI, Ogunnaya FU, Obeagu GU, Ndidi AC. Sickle Cell Anaemia: A Gestational Enigma. Migration. 2023; 17:18.
  63. Winiarska-Mieczan A, Tomaszewska E, Jachimowicz K. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties of tea—The positive impact of tea consumption on patients with autoimmune diabetes. Nutrients. 2021;13(11):3972.
  64. Ifeanyi OE, Uzoma OG. A review on erythropietin in pregnancy. J. Gynecol. Womens Health. 2018;8(3):1-4. https://www.academia.edu/download/56538560/A_Review_on_Erythropietin_in_Pregnancy.pdf.
  65. Ifeanyi OE. A review on pregnancy and haematology. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biol. Med. 2018;3(5):26-8.DOI: 22192/ijcrbm.2018.03.05.006
  66. Nwosu DC, Nwanjo HU, Obeagu EI, Ibebuike JE, Ezeama MC. Ihekireh. Changes in liver enzymes and lipid profile of pregnant women with malaria in Owerri, Nigeria. International Journal of Current Research and Academic Review. 2015;3(5):376-83.
  67. Mor G, Cardenas I. The immune system in pregnancy: a unique complexity. American journal of reproductive immunology. 2010;63(6):425-33.
  68. Ibebuike JE, Ojie CA, Nwokike GI, Obeagu EI, Nwosu DC, Nwanjo HU, Agu GC, Ezenwuba CO, Nwagu SA, Akujuobi AU. Factors that influence women’s utilization of primary health care services in Calabar Cros river state, Nigeria. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2017;4(7):28-33.
  69. Eze R, Ezeah GA, Obeagu EI, Omeje C, Nwakulite A. Evaluation of iron status and some haematological parameters of pregnant women in Enugu, South Eastern Nigeria. World Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research. 2021;7(5):251-4.
  70. Sultana Z, Maiti K, Aitken J, Morris J, Dedman L, Smith R. Oxidative stress, placental ageing‐related pathologies and adverse pregnancy outcomes. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 2017;77(5): e12653.
  71. Elemchukwu Q, Obeagu EI, Ochei KC. Prevalence of Anaemia among Pregnant Women in Braithwaite Memorial Specialist Hospital (BMSH) Port Harcourt. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2014;9(5):59-64.
  72. Akandinda M, Obeagu EI, Katonera MT. Non Governmental Organizations and Women’s Health Empowerment in Uganda: A Review. Asian Research Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 2022;8(3):12-6.
  73. Vidya S. Sunil Kumar Shango Patience Emmanuel Jakheng, Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu, Emmanuel William Jakheng, Onyekachi Splendid Uwakwe, Gloria Chizoba Eze, and Getrude Uzoma Obeagu (2022). Occurrence of Chlamydial Infection Based on Clinical Symptoms and Clinical History among Pregnant Women Attending Clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Reports in Gynaecology.;5(3):98-105.
  74. Gamde MS, Obeagu EI. Iron Deficiency Anaemia: Enemical to Pregnancy. European Journal of Biomedical. 2023;10(9):272-5. links/64f63358827074313ffaae7b/IRON-DEFICIENCY-ANAEMIA-ENEMICAL-TO-PREGNANCY.pdf.
  75. Knuppel RA, Hassan MI, Mc Dermott JJ, Tucker M, Morrison JC. Oxidative stress and antioxidants: preterm birth and preterm infants. Preterm birth-mother and child. InTech. 2012:125-50.
  76. Emeka-Obi OR, Ibeh NC, Obeagu EI, Okorie HM. Evaluation of levels of some inflammatory cytokines in preeclamptic women in owerri. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(42A):53-65.
  77. Emeka-Obi OR, Ibeh NC, Obeagu EI, Okorie HM. Studies of Some Haemostatic Variables in Preeclamptic Women in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(42B):39-48.
  78. Sebastiani G, Navarro-Tapia E, Almeida-Toledano L, Serra-Delgado M, Paltrinieri AL, García-Algar Ó, Andreu-Fernández V. Effects of antioxidant intake on fetal development and maternal/neonatal health during pregnancy. Antioxidants. 2022;11(4):648.
  79. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Postpartum haemorrhage among women delivering through spontaneous vaginal delivery: Prevalence and risk factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2023;10(8):22-6.
  80. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Sickle Cell Anaemia in Pregnancy: A Review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023;6(2):10-3.
  81. Sen S, Chakraborty R. The role of antioxidants in human health. InOxidative stress: diagnostics, prevention, and therapy 2011:1-37). American Chemical Society.
  82. Gude NM, Roberts CT, Kalionis B, King RG. Growth and function of the normal human placenta. Thrombosis research. 2004;114(5-6):397-407.
  83. Toboła-Wróbel K, Pietryga M, Dydowicz P, Napierała M, Brązert J, Florek E. Association of oxidative stress on pregnancy. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity. 2020;2020.
  84. Pressman EK, Cavanaugh JL, Mingione M, Norkus EP, Woods JR. Effects of maternal antioxidant supplementation on maternal and fetal antioxidant levels: a randomized, double-blind study. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 2003;189(6):1720-5.
  85. Moore TA, Ahmad IM, Zimmerman MC. Oxidative stress and preterm birth: an integrative review. Biological research for nursing. 2018;20(5):497-512.
  86. Mistry HD, Williams PJ. The importance of antioxidant micronutrients in pregnancy. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity. 2011.
  87. Vadillo-Ortega F, Perichart-Perera O, Espino S, Avila-Vergara MA, Ibarra I, Ahued R, Godines M, Parry S, Macones G, Strauss JF. Effect of supplementation during pregnancy with L-arginine and antioxidant vitamins in medical food on pre-eclampsia in high risk population: randomised controlled trial. Bmj. 2011;342.
  88. Salles AM, Galvao TF, Silva MT, Motta LC, Pereira MG. Antioxidants for preventing preeclampsia: a systematic review. The Scientific World Journal. 2012.
  89. Ucci M, Di Tomo P, Tritschler F, Cordone VG, Lanuti P, Bologna G, Di Silvestre S, Di Pietro N, Pipino C, Mandatori D, Formoso G. Anti-inflammatory role of carotenoids in endothelial cells derived from umbilical cord of women affected by gestational diabetes mellitus. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity. 2019;2019.
  90. Agbafor, K. N., Ezeali, C., Akubugwo, E. I., Obiudu, I. K., Uraku, A. J., Ogbanshi, M. E., … & Ugwu, O. P. C. (2015). Cardioprotective effect of leaf and root extracts of Newbouldia laevis against carbon tetrachloride induced-cardiotoxicity in albino rats. Eur J Med Plant9(3), 1-7.
  91. Okechukwu, P. U., Nzubechukwu, E., Ogbansh, M. E., Ezeani, N., Nworie, M. O., & Ezugwu, A. (2015). The Effect of Ethanol Leaf Extract of Jatropha curcas on Chloroform Induced Hepatotoxicity in Albino Rats. Global J Biotech & Biochem10, 11-15.
  92. Orji, O. U., Ibiam, U. A., Aja, P. M., Uraku, A. J., Inya-Agha, O. R., & Ugwu Okechukwu, P. C. (2015). Hepatoprotective activity of ethanol extract of Vernonia ambigua against carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity in albino rats. IOSR J Dental Med Sci14, 22-9.
  93. Obioma, B. E., Emmanuel, I. O., Okechukwu, P. U., & Ifemeje, J. C. (2014). The effects of aqueous leaf extract of Mucuna pruriens (agbala) on some selected biochemical indices of wister albino rats.  J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci3(1), 724-729.
  94. Ogbonia, U. O., Ama-Udu, I., Egwu, O. A., & Okechukwu, P. C. U. (2015). The Protective Effect of Gongronema latifolium Leaf Extract Against Hepatotoxicity of Rambo and Baygon Mosquito Coil Smoke Respectively in Albino Rats. Albino Rats. World Applied Sciences Journal33, 1915-1922.
  95. Ozioko, P. C., Ikeyi, A. P., & Ugwu, O. P. C. (2013). Review article cellulases their substrates activity and assay methods. The Experiment12(2), 778-785.
  96. Odo, C. E., Nwodo, O. F., Joshua, P. E., Ubani, C. S., Etim, O. E., & Ugwu, O. P. (2012). Effects of bonny light crude oil on anti-oxidative enzymes and total proteins in Wistar rats. African Journal of Biotechnology11(98), 16455-16460.

CITE AS: Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu, Getrude Uzoma Obeagu, Joseph Obiezu Chukwujekwu Ezeonwumelu, Esther Ugo Alum and Okechukwu Paul-Chima Ugwu (2023). Antioxidants and Pregnancy: Impact on Maternal and Fetal Health. NEWPORT INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL    OF  BIOLOGICAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES 4 (1):17-25 https://doi.org/10.59298/NIJBAS/2023/1.3.11111                                                                                                     

DOWNLOAD PDF